Constantine XI (1449-1453) and the capture of Constantinople by the Turks
Territories recognize the authority of the last Byzantine emperor in Constantinople were reduced, with its immediate surroundings in Thrace, and most of the Peloponnesus or Morea, at some distance from the capital, governed by brothers king.
Honesty, nobility, power, manhood and patriotism were the dominant qualities of Constantine, confirmed most contemporary Greek sources and their own conduct during the siege of Constantinople. Italian humanist Francesco Filelfo that, during his stay in Constantinople, personally knew Constantine before his accession to the throne, appointed king, in one of his letters, a man with “soul pious and noble” (Pio et excelso animo).
The opponent is powerful and terrible of Constantine eraMehmed II, aged 21, who united in its nature violent outbursts of cruelty unquenched thirst for blood and many of the most despicable vices passion for science, art and culture, energy and general qualities, statesman and organizer. A Byzantine historian relates that eagerly devote sciences, especially astrology, he was reading stories about the heroic deeds of Alexander of Macedon, Julius Caesar and the emperors of Constantinople and spoke five languages in addition to Turkish.
Oriental springs praises his piety, justice, kindness and protection granted to scholars and poets. Historians nineteenth and twentieth centuries have considered different Mehmed II; some have challenged any positive quality, others acknowledged that was an extraordinary personality, almost brilliant. The desire conquest of Constantinople was an obsession of the young sultan, who, according to the historian Ducas,
“Night and day, going to bed and waking is the palace or outside it, knead their minds what actions and what the military means to seize Constantinople”. He spent nights of insomnia paper outlining the plan of the city and its fortifications marking the places where it can be more easily attacked.
They have received portraits of both opponents, those of Constantine Palaeologus on seals and several manuscripts later, those of Mehmed II the medals minted in the XVth century Italian artists in honor of Sultan and several portraits more especially the painted by famous Venetian artist Gentile Bellini (1507), who spent a short time (1479-1480) in Constantinople towards the end of the reign of Mehmed II.
Decided to apply the coup de grace Constantinople, Mehmed acted with extreme caution. First of all, north of the city, on the European shore of the Bosphorus, in the narrowest point, has built a strong fortress with towers, one can see the majestic ruins of which still (Rumeli-Hisar); cannons installed there to launch the enormous stone era.
When the news spread citadel build on the Bosphorus, the Christian population in the capital, Asia, Thrace and islands removed, according to Ducas, a cry of despair: “Now is the end of the city; now we see signs of ruin of our nation; Now the days of Antichrist approached. What will happen to us? What to do? … Where are the protectors of the holy city? “
Another contemporary and eyewitness who lived the horrors of the siege of Constantinople, the Venetian Nicolo Barbaro, author of Diary of precious siege, wrote: “This is extremely powerful fortification from the sea, so that is impregnable to the shore and bombards walls are a huge number; landward fortification is also strong, although less than the Sea. “
This fortification of the capital cut off communication with the North and Black Sea ports, because all foreign craft both at entry and exit dm Bosphorus, were intercepted by the Turks; in case of siege, Constantinople would have been deprived of grain supplies from the Black Sea ports. It was very easy for the Turks to take these measures, because, before the European fortress, rises on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus fortifications built at the turn of the century by Sultan Bayezid XIV (Anatoli-Hisar).
Mehmed then invaded the Greek possessions in Morea, to prevent the despot Morea Constantinople to come ina help in a critical circumstance. After these preliminary steps, Mehmed, this “pagan enemy of the Christian people” to him quote Barbaro, began the siege of the big city.
Constantine was tried as much as possible to oppose a powerful resistance worthy opponent in an unequal battle whose results were, you might say, predictable. The king commanded to gather in the city, the neighborhoods of the capital, all possible reserves of grain and to make some repairs to the city walls. Greek garrison town not exceed a few thousand.
Seeing this danger near inevitable, Constantine sought help West; but instead of military aid wanted a cardinal novel of Greek origin, Isidore, the former Metropolitan of Moscow and attend the council Florentine arrived in Constantinople, to celebrate the restoration of peace between churches Eastern and Western officiated a religious service union in church St. Sofia, which caused the greatest stir among the city’s population. One of the most senior officials of Byzantium, Lucas Notaras, uttered these famous words then: “Better to see in town reigning Turkish turban than the Latin tiara.”
Venetians and Genoese took part in defending the capital. Constantine and the city’s population have relied especially on a Genoese nobleman with great military reputation, Giovanni Giustiniani, who arrived in Constantinople with two large ships bringing 700 fighters. Entrance to the Golden Horn was blocked, as happened several times already in critical moments of the past, a massive iron chain. It is assumed that remains of this iron chain could be seen until recently in the churchyard Byzantine St. Irene Museum where they are now the fall-const-10de Ottoman Military History.
Mehmed’s military forces, land and sea – comprised, besides Turkish, representatives of different peoples conquered – far beyond the modest number of the defenders of Constantinople, Greek and some Latins, particularly Italians.
One of the most important events in the history world was imminent. The very fact of the siege and conquest by the Turks of the “God-protected city” Constantinople, left a profound imprint springs, which in different languages and from different viewpoints, described the last moments of the Byzantine Empire, and allow us to witness, sometimes literally days and hours to conduct final act of this exciting historical drama. They have reached the sources written in Greek, Latin, Italian, Slavic and Turkish.
The main sources are distinguished Greek in appreciation of this event. Georgios Phrantzes who participated in the siege, boyfriend of the last Byzantine emperor and famous diplomat who hold high dignity in the Empire, harbored a boundless love for his king hero and palaiologos in general and was hostile to the union of Churches; it describes the last days of Byzantium intended to restore the honor of the vanquished Constantine, his homeland Greek Orthodox faith insulted and offended.
Another contemporary writer, Greek Critobul who sided with the Turks wanted to demonstrate loyalty to Mehmed II, has dedicated its history, strongly influenced by Thucydides, “the greatest king, king of kings, Mehmet” He recounted the events of the last days of Byzantium from the point of view of a subject of the new Ottoman Empire, although not attacked by his fellow Greeks.
A Greek from Asia Minor, Ducas, a supporter of the union, who figured the only salvation for the Empire, wrote a favorable outlook West, emphasized in particular the services and merits commander Genoese Giustiniani, reducing rather the role of Constantine, but he wrote at the same time, not without love and sympathy for the Greeks.
Finally, the fourth Greek historian of the last period of Byzantium, the only Athenian literature Byzantine Laonikos Chalcocondyles, choosing as the focus of its history not Byzantium, but Turkish Empire, has set a new theme and extensive “Extraordinary growth young power Ottoman Empire, who ascended to the ruins of the Greek states, france and slave “.Lucrare general, Laonikos’s writing – which, moreover, was not an eyewitness of the last days of Constantinople – is only a secondary importance .
Among the most valuable sources written in Latin, some belong to authors who lived in Constantinople throughout the siege. One was the call “to all believers in Christ,” the cardinal wrote Isidor, who escaped with weight should not be taken captive by the Turks. He implored all Christians to take up arms to defend the Christian faith in danger. Report to the pope of Chios Archbishop Leonard, who escaped captivity and he has performed great misfortune that struck Byzantine Greeks as punishment for deviation from Western faith. Finally, a poem in verse, in four stanzas, entitled “Constantinopolis”, was composed by Italian Pusculus, who spent some time in Turkish captivity. It was an imitator of Virgil and, to some extent, of Homer. Western zealous faithful, the Pope dedicated his poem and was, like Leonard, convinced that God punished Byzantium for its schism.
Italian sources are among the priceless Journal of the siege of Constantinople, written in old Venetian dialect, in a style arid chronicle whose author is a noble Venetian, Nicolo Barbaro. Enumerated daily conflicts between GREE and Turks during the siege, which is why his work is of paramount importance in establishing the chronology of events.
In old Russian, a history of the conquest of Constantinople important, “this great and terrible deed” was written by “lowly sinner and Nestor Iskinder (lskander)”. Take likely Russian origin, fought in the army of the Sultan and described impartially and, if possible, every day actions of the Turks during the siege and the fall of the city. History fall of Constantinople is also related in various Russian chronicles.
Finally, there are Turkish sources who appreciate great event from the viewpoint of Islam victorious and triumphant and brilliant his representative, Mehmed II the Conqueror. Turkish springs sometimes presented in the form of collections of Turkish popular legends about Constantinople and the Bosphorus. This list shows what the main springs rich and varied documentation exists for studying the problem siege of Constantinople by the Turks and conquest.
At the beginning of April 1453 siege of the big city. Not only numerical superiority undeniable Turkish military forces contributed to the success of the siege. Mehmed II called Barbaro “this perfidious Turkish, Turkish-dog” was the first sovereign in history to have at its disposal a real park of artillery. The Turks perfected bronze cannons, gigantic for that era’s, throwing projectiles at great distance enormous stone; SHOT their destructive walls of Constantinople secular fall-const-12puteau not resist.
Ţarigrad Russian story about that “damned Mehmed” transported near city walls “cannons harquebuses, towers, ladders, siege machines and other devices for the demolition of the walls.” Critobul, contemporary Greek historian, has clearly understood the decisive role of artillery when he wrote that all Turkish trenches dug under walls and underground walkways “proved superfluous and involved an unnecessary expense, as cannons decide everything”.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, in several places in Istanbul on the ground could see huge cannonballs that had been thrown over the walls, which were almost the same place where they had fallen in 1453.
On 20 April, the only time fate was favorable Christians, four Genoese ships that came to the aid of his Constantinopolu defeated the Turkish fleet in spite of its numerical superiority. “One can easily imagine,” wrote Schlumberger, a recent history of siege and conquest of Constantinople, “the ineffable joy of the Greeks and Italians. For a moment, Constantinople was considered saved. ” But this success, of course, could not have a real significance for the conduct of the siege.
On April 22, the city with the king headed amazed in front of an extraordinary and terrifying spectacle: the Turkish ships were in the top of the Golden Horn. During the previous night, the Sultan had managed to transport boats overland from the Bosphorus to the Golden Horn; is built ad hoc kind of wooden platform in the valley between the hills and the vessels were put on wheels and pulled on this platform through the efforts of many “worthless”, according to him Barbaro, who was available to the Sultan. Greek-Italian fleet anchored in the Golden Horn beyond the chain was found in that moment caught between two fires. City situation became critical. Plan besieged garrison to burn the Turkish vessels during the night of the Golden Horn was revealed by a treason Sultan and was prevented.
The violent bombardment of the city, uninterrupted for several weeks, brought the population to the brink of exhaustion complete; men, women, children, priests, monks and nuns were forced, day and night, under gunfire, repair numerous breaches in the walls. The siege had already lasted 50 days. Rumors have reached the sultan’s ear, perhaps invented namely about the possible arrival of Christian fleet in the city using persuaded to precipitate the decisive blow once Constantinople.
Imitating famous speeches in the history of Thucydides, Mehmed Critobul assigns a long speech to his troops in calling for courage and firmness; In this speech, the Sultan stated: “There are three conditions for a victorious war: to want (victory) to be ashamed (of dishonor, defeat) and obey commanders”.
The ancient capital of the Christian East, foreseeing the inevitable disaster and prevented the assault designed, spent the eve of the great day in prayer and tears. At the king’s command, religious processions followed by huge crowds singing “Lord, have mercy on us”, roamed the city. The men encouraged each other to staunch resistance against the Turks in the last hour of struggle. In a long speech quoted by the Greek historian Phrantzes Constantine urged the population to a spirited defense but clear glimpse of her tragic destiny when he said that Turks “Rely on weapons, cavalry, infantry and numerical superiority; we trust in the name of the Lord and Savior and, secondly, arms and our strength, we have been entrusted by divine power. “
Constantine ended his speech thus: “I pray and beseech you to give due honor and obedience to your commanders, each according to his rank, military grade and his ministry. Know this: if the fall-const-2respectati sincerely all things I have commanded you, I hope, with God’s help, to avoid just punishment sent by God. “
That evening he celebrated a service in St. Sophia; Christian ceremony was the last to have been committed in the famous church. Based on Byzantine history is English. Pears gave a remarkable description of the ceremony:
“Great evening ceremony [that day – n. Trans.], One that should always highlight the world of historical performances, was the last job Christian church celebrated the Divine Wisdom. […] Were present king and commanders who could defeat [on defense wall – n. Trans.], And abode was once again and for the last time packed with Christian believers. We can imagine this scene without too much effort. Inside the church was the most beautiful that it produced Christian art and its beauty was enhanced by splendid details. Patriarch and Cardinal crowd of clerics representing both Churches, Eastern and Western; king and aristocracy, the last remnant of the once brilliant and courageous Byzantine aristocrats; priests and soldiers mix; Constantinopolitan, Venetians and Genoese, were all present, all before making their distress and feeling that, given the imminent danger, the rivalry which had absorbed him for years were too small to also reflect on them. King and his comrades in arms were shared by “most pure and divine Mysteries” and they bade farewell to patriarch. The ceremony was in reality a mass death. Empire agonize and deserved the job for his spirit to be committed in agony most beautiful church in public and before his last valiant împărat.Dacă Charlemagne’s coronation scene and the birth of an empire, so vividly described by Mr. Bryce is among the most picturesque in history, that of the last Christian services in St. Sofia is certainly among the most tragic “.
“Who can describe,” he writes Phrantzes, “tears and sobs from the palace! Not even a being of wood or stone could not hold back his tears. “
The general assault began on the night of Tuesday, May 28 to 29, between first and second clocks of the morning. La signal given, the city was attacked simultaneously from three părti. Two attacks were rejected. Finally, Mehmed organized with the greatest care the third and final attack.
Turks attacked with extraordinary violence walls near the gate St. Roman (or Pempton), where fighting king. One of the foremost defenders of the city, Genoese Giustiniani, seriously wounded, was forced to abandon the fight; was transported on a ship with difficulty managed to leave port in the direction of Chios. Either now or during the journey to the island, Giustiniani died. His tomb can be seen today in Chios, but the Latin epitaph, while the church found out before St. Dominic inside the citadel, seems to have disappeared.
Giustiniani’s departure and death were an irreparable loss for the besieged. Also several new breaches opened in the walls.
Emperor fought heroically, as a simple soldier, and fell in battle. We have no precise information about the death of the last Byzantine emperor; therefore, death was shrouded by legend who recently obscured the historical fact.
After the death of Constantine, Turks invaded the city, causing terrible devastation. A lot of Greeks sought refuge in St. Sophia, hoping to be there safely. But the Turks forced entry and rushed into the church; killing and mocked the Greeks were hiding there, regardless of sex or age. On the day of the conquest of the city or the next day, the Sultan made his solemn entry into Constantinople conquered and went to St. Sofia, where he delivered a Muslim prayer. Afterwards, Mehmed and took up residence in the imperial palace from Blacherne.
According unanimous indication of the sources, plundering the city as promised Mehmed soldiers, it lasted three days and three nights. The population was massacred without mercy. Churches, headed by St. Sofia and monasteries with all their riches were plundered and desecrated; Private property was looted. Adverse perished in those days a large number of masterpieces of the human spirit. The Cards were thrown into the fire or torn to pieces, trampled or sold on a price or anything. According to the testimony of Ducas, an enormous number of books were loaded into wagons and scattered in different regions; a large number of books, the works of Aristotle and Plato, theological writings and many others were sold for a gold coin; ouches of gold and silver that adorned the Gospels were plucked, and gospels themselves have been sold or disposed of; all holy icons were thrown into the fire and ate cooked meat Turks on this rug.
The opinion of F. Uspensky, was that: “Turks in 1453 acted with more gentleness and humanity than the crusaders who conquered Constantinople in 1204.”
A popular Christian tradition tells that in the moment of Turks in St. Sofia is famous [Holy] Mass; The priest holding hands Sacraments I saw Muslims thronging the church, the altar wall was opened magically before him, he was broke and vanished; when Constantinople passes again in the hands of Christians, the priest will come out of the wall and continue the liturgy.
60 years ago, they used local guides to show tourists in one of the hidden corners of Istanbul, an alleged tomb of the last Byzantine emperor, above which a lamp was burning modest. Of course, this anonymous grave is not really that of Constantine; where he was buried is unknown. In 1895, EA Grosvenor wrote:
“Today, Abou Vefa district of Istanbul, can be seen a modest and anonymous grave that ordinary Greeks revere him as one of Constantine. Constantine_XI_Palaiologosînconjurat humble devotion to him a few rustic ornaments. The candles were burning day and night together. Until eight years ago, it was frequented, though secretly, as a place of prayer. Then, the Ottoman government introduced severe penalties and then was nearly deserted. It’s the kind of story that delights the gullible or the faithful “.
It was commonly said that two days after the fall of Constantinople, arrived in a fleet western archipelago to him and Despres, learning the news of the fall of the city, made about-turn back immediately. Based on testimonies us today this fact is undeniable: no papal vessels nor Genoese or Aragonese not sailed eastward to assist Constantinople.
In 1456, Mehmed conquered Athens from the Franks; Soon after, I was subjected over Greece, the Peloponnesus. Ancient Parthenon, where the Blessed Virgin church in the Middle Ages, was at the behest of Sultan turned into a mosque. In 1461 the distant Trebizond, capital of a once independent Empire, passed into the hands of the Turks. At the same time, they took possession of the last vestiges of the Orthodox Byzantine Despotate of Epir. The empire cease to exist and its establishment was founded and expanded a Muslim Empire (Ottoman). Its capital was moved from Adrianople to Constantinople by the Turks called Istanbul (Istanbul).
Imitating the “lamentation” Niketas’s Akominatos after plundering of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Ducas deplored this event in 1453. Here exordiul wailing:
“O, town, city, of all cities head! O, city, town, center of the four quarters of the world! O, city, town, pride and fear Christians barbarians! O, town, city, second paradise planted in the West, including all sorts of plants that bends under the weight of spiritual fruit! Paradise, where is your beauty? Where it is blessed spiritual and bodily force your spiritual gifts? Where are the bodies of the Apostles, my Lord? … Where are the relics of the saints, where are the relics of martyrs? Where are the remains of Constantine the Great and other kings? “.
Another contemporary Polish historian Jan Dlugosz wrote in his History of Poland:
“This defeat Constantinople, pathetic and miserable, was enormous victory of the Turks, the latter destruction of the Greeks, Latins infamy; that faith was injured Roman religion ravaged the name of Christ reviled and oppressed. One of the two eyes Christianity was snatched; one of the two hands was amputated, since the libraries were burned and destroyed the teachings of Greek literature, without which no one can be considered learned. “
A columnist from far Georgie noted piously: “the day the Turks took Constantinople where the sun was darkened.”
Fall of Constantinople made a terrible impression in Western Europe, which, first of all, was terrified at the thought of the future advancement of the Turks. Besides, the ruin of one of the main centers of Christianity, although in terms of schismatic Roman Church could not fail to provoke Western anger in the hearts of believers, fear, longing to fix the situation. Popes, sovereigns, bishops, princes and knights have left many writings and letters depicting the whole horror of the situation and call for a crusade against Islam victorious and his representative, Mehmed Il century, “the forerunner of the Antichrist and second Sennacherib” .
Many writings lament the ruin of Constantinople as a hotbed of culture. The call of Pope Nicholas V, king of Western Frederick III, calling the fall of Constantinople an “affliction common to the whole Christian faith,” wrote the (city) Constantinople was “a real dwelling (velut domiciulium proprium) literature and instruction for all humanity “. […]
No calls popes and sovereigns nor noble impulse of individuals and communities, no common hazard awareness to the threat of Ottoman divided Western Europe could unify to fight against Islam. The Turks continued to advance and at the end of the eighteenth century, threatened Vienna. It was the zenith of the power of the Ottoman Empire. They were forced to withdraw from Europe, but Constantinople is known, and today is in the hands of the Turks.
source: cuvantul-ortodox.ro